Great Gatsby, Detailed Analysis, Passage Chapter 1 (p.13-15) Essay Example for Free

Great Gatsby, Detailed Analysis, Passage Chapter 1 (p.13-15) EssayIn this de fragmentizeure incision Carraway is visiting his cousin Daisy and her husband Tom Buchanan, a condition member of Nicks social club at Yale University, on East Egg. Inside, Daisy lounges on a couch with her friend, Jordan Baker, a competitive golfer who yawns as though world-weary by her surroundings. As Nick enters he describes his two female companions in extreme detail.F. Scott Fitzgerald uses imagery on many occasions to aid the reader to prototype the setting. He describes the womens dresses fluttering in the pervert as though they had just been blown back in after a short flight nearly the house (p. 13). Fitzgerald also illustrates the women seeming to be buoyed up..upon an anchored balloon (p.13). He repeats the metaphor of balloons as he recounts that they seem to be ballooning to the ground as the wind calms. Nick, the narrator, goes on to describe his company. He does so in extreme detai l. The author does this as to help us visualize Nicks situation. The theme of white is inaugurated in this passage (They were both in white, p.13) emphasizing the innocence and pureness of Daisy Buchanan and Jordan Baker.Fitzgerald makes the visualization of the visitation very simple for his readers by using vivid examples (her chin raised a tiny, as if she were balancing something on her chin, p.14). He makes her appear almost statuesque. Jordan is portrayed as having a bored and apathetic attitude about everything, which is all part of her I am too good for you appearance. Jordan Baker seems to be ignoring Nick upon his entry (If she saw meshe gave no hint of it-, p.14). This looks as though Jordan is playing impenetrable to get. The mind games could be seen to be conveying that she is attracted to Nick. The narration stops and we hear Daisys vowel system for the first time (Im p-paralyzed with happiness, p.14). Nick mentions her lightheartedness Daisy Buchanans illustration i s very descriptive.She seems to defecate taken a greater deal of interest in Nick although there does appear to be a hint of awkwardness in the room, peradventure due to the fact that the two have not seen each other in a lengthy period of time. She is not labeled beautiful, the reader does notwithstanding get an inkling that she is, as there seems to be a sort of aura surrounding her (That was a way she had. p.14). The narrator tells the reader a little bit about himself and how he is not used to the posh lifestyle of the people of East Egg (..any exhibition of complete self-sufficiency draws a amazed tribute from me, p.14). This could mean that Nick is used to a more family orientated lifestyle were friends and family supported and trusted one another more.As the conversation mingled with Daisy and Nick continues, Scott Fitzgerald decides to go into even more detail about Daisy. He catalogs her speech in extreme detail (..in her low thrilling voicethe kind of voice that the e ar follows up and downas if each speech is an arrangement of notes., p.14). Nick does not only comment on Daisys voice but also her general appearance, her face, her eye and even her mouth. The narrators portrayal of Daisy leads the reader to believe that she is a person of great beauty. A lady with whom one could easily fall in love with. Nick is almost obsessional about his cousin, Nick not being the only one in the course of the book.F. Scott Fitzgerald really triumphs in his use of language. His language is blanket(a) of concrete verbal images which are incredibly appealing to the senses. Furthermore his descriptions of setting, characters and symbolism are in such sheer detail, it is impossible for the reader not to unhorse imagining what it, she, he or they must have looked or even sounded like. This passage introduces us to two of the novels major characters, Daisy and Jordan. It it also the first time we get a real taster of F. Scott Fitzgeralds descriptive abilities.

Grading Summary Essay Example for Free

Grading Summary Essay heading 1. query (TCO A) The Financial Accounting Standards Board employs a due process system, which has all CPAs in the United States vote on a new statement. enables interested parties to express their views on issues under consideration. identifies the taleing issues that be the most important. requires that all accountants receive a copy of fiscal standards. Points Received 5 of 5 straits 2. apparent movement (TCO A) The cash method of accountingis used by most publicly traded corporations for financial statement purposes. is not in accordance with the matching principle for most publicly traded corporations. often is used on the income statement by large, publicly held companies. exclusively of the aboveQuestion 3. Question (TCO A) Which of the following is an ingredient of relevance?VerifiabilityCompletenessNeutralityPredictive valueQuestion 4. Question (TCO A) The characteristic that is demonstrated when a proud degree of consensus can be sec ured among independent measurers using the same measurement methods isrelevance.reliability.verifiability.neutrality.Question 5. Question (TCO A) Which of the following is not a base element of financial statements?Assets residuum sheetLossesRevenuesQuestion 6. Question (TCO A) Which basic element of financial statements arises from peripheral or incidental transactions?AssetsLiabilitiesGainsExpensesQuestion 7. Question (TCO A) Which basic assumption may not be followed when a firm in bankruptcy reports financial results? Economic entity assumptionGoing concern assumptionperiodicity assumptionMonetary unit assumptionQuestion 8. Question (TCO D) Balance sheet instruction is useful for all of the following except to compute order of return.analyze cash inflows and outflows for the period.evaluate capital structure.assess future cash flows.Question 9. Question (TCO D) The amount of cartridge clip that is expected to elapse until an asset is recognize or otherwise converted into ca sh is referred to as solvency.financial flexibility.liquidity.exchangeability.Question 10. Question (TCO A) The quality of information that gives assurance that is reasonably free of error and diverge and is complete is relevance.faithful representation.verifiability.neutrality.Question 1. Question (TCO D) The basis for classifying assets as cur subscribe or noncurrent is conversion to cash within the accounting cycle or one year, whichever is shorter.the operating cycle or one year, whichever is longer.the accounting cycle or one year, whichever is longer.the operating cycle or one year, whichever is shorter.Question 2. Question (TCO A) What is FASB Codification? Explain in detail.Instructor score The codification takes the statements and other pronouncements and arranges the information by topic. Per the FASB, the new system will 1. reduce the amount of time and effort required to solve an accounting research issue 2. mitigate the risk of noncompliance with standards through imp roved usability of the literature 3. provide accurate information with real-time updates as new standards ar released and 4. assist the FASB with the research and convergence efforts required during the standard-setting process.Question 3. Question (TCO C) At Ruth Company, events and transactions during 2010 included the following. The tax income rate for all items is 30%. (1) Depreciation for 2008 was found to be understated by $30,000. (2) A strike by the employees of a supplier resulted in a loss of $25,000. (3) The inventory at December 31, 2008 was overstated by $40,000. (4) A flood destroyed a building that had a book value of $500,000. Floods are very uncommon in that area. What would the effect of these events and transactions on 2010 income from continuing operations net of tax be? Instructor Explanation $25,000 $7,500 = $17,500Question 4. Question (TCO C) For the year ended December 31, 2010, Transformers Inc. reported the following. Net income $60,000Preferred dividend s declared $10,000Common dividend declared $2,000Unrealized holding loss, net of tax $1,000Retained earnings, stock balance $80,000Common stock sold during the year Retained earnings, beginning balance $80,000 Common stock $40,000Accumulated Other Comprehensive Income, Beginning Balance $5,000 What would Transformers report as the ending balance of retained earnings? Instructor Explanation $80,000 + $60,000 $10,000 $2,000 = $128,000Question 5. Question (TCO C) Madsen Company reported the following information for 2010. gross sales revenue $510,000Cost of goods sold $350,000Operating depreciates $55,000Unrealized holding gain on available-for-sale securities $40,000 Cash dividends received on the securities $2,000For 2010, what would Madsen report as other all-around(prenominal) income? Instructor Explanation Other comprehensive income = $40,000Question 6. Question (TCO B) Allowance for doubtful accounts on 1/1/10 was $50,000. The balance in the pay account on 12/31/10 after m aking the annual adjusting entry was $65,000, and during 2010, bad debts written eat up amounted to $40,000. You are to provide the scatty adjusting entry. Please indicate DR (debit) or CR (credit) to the left of the account rubric, and place a comma between the account title and the amount of the adjustment. Instructor Explanation DR Bad Debt Expense 55,000 CR Allowance for Doubtful Accounts 55,000 death balance $65,000Beginning balance 50,000Difference 15,000 written off 40,000Adjustment $55,000Question 7. Question (TCO B) Allowance for doubtful accounts on 1/1/10 was $75,000. The balance in the allowance account on 12/31/10 after making the annual adjusting entry was $60,000, and during 2010, bad debts written off amounted to $30,000. You are to provide the missing adjusting entry. Please indicate DR (debit) or CR (credit) to the left of the account title, and place a comma between the account title and the amount of the adjustment. Instructor Explanation DR Bad Debt Expense 1 5,000 CR Allowance for Doubtful Accounts 15,000Ending balance $60,000Beginning balance 75,000Difference -15000Written off 30000Adjustment $15,000Question 8. Question (TCO B) Allowance for doubtful accounts on 1/1/10 was $60,000. The balance in the allowance account on 12/31/10 after making the annual adjusting entry was $55,000, and during 2010, bad debts written off amounted to $40,000. You are to provide the missing adjusting entry. Please indicate DR (debit) or CR (credit) to the left of the account title, and place a comma between the account title and the amount of the adjustment. Instructor Explanation 12/31/10 Ending Balance 55,0001/1/10 Beginning Balance 60,000Adjustment -5,000Written off 40,000Adjusting entry 35,000DR Bad Debts Expense, 35,000CR Allowance for Doubtful Accounts, 35,000Question 9. Question (TCO B) Prepaid rent at 1/1/10 was $30,000. During 2010, rent payments of $120,000 were made and charged to rent expense. The 2010 income statement shows as a general expen se the item rent expense in the amount of $125,000. You are to assemble the missing adjusting entry that must have been made, assuming reversing entries are not made. Please indicate DR (debit) or CR (credit) to the left of the account title, and place a comma between the account title and the amount of the adjustment Instructor Explanation DR Rent Expense 5,000CR Prepaid Rent 5,000Rent expense $125,000Less cash paid 120,000Reduction in prepaid rent $5,000Question 10. Question (TCO D) Which of the following should be reported for capital stock?The shares receivedThe shares issuedThe shares outstandingAll of the aboveQuestion 11. Question (TCO D) An example of an item that is not an element of working capital is accrued interest on notes receivable.goodwill.goods in process.temporary investments.Question 12. Question (TCO A) Financial information exhibits the characteristic of consistency when expenses are reported as charges against revenue in the period in which they are paid. ac counting entities give accountable events the same accountingtreatment from period to period. extraordinary gains and losses are not included on the income statement. accounting procedures are adopted which give a consistent rate of net incomeQuestion 13. Question (TCO D) The current assets section of the balance sheet should includemachinery.patents.goodwill.inventory.Question 14. Question (TCO D) Houghton Company has the following items common stock, $720,000 treasury stock, $85,000 deferred taxes, $100,000, and retained earnings, $313,000. What total amount should Houghton Company report as stockholders equity? $848,000$948,000$1,048,000$1,118,000Instructor Explanation General Feedback b. $720,000 $85,000 + $313,000 = $948,000.

Should Juvenile Offenders Be Tried As Adults Criminology Essay

Should Juvenile Offenders Be Tried As Adults Criminology EssayIn todays society, thither are many crimes going on. Adults are non the only ones that believe crimes. One issue today is that late hitenses and whether teen shape upd offenders should be tried as adults in criminal court. A common phrase that is often used in this case of young juvenile persons committing crimes is Old profuse to do the crime, old enough to do the time. This phrase should be cleared to people that juveniles are not adults, and with this being tell it leave behind not film them one. It has redefined juvenile offenses by treating roughly of them as delinquent acts to be adjudicated within a separate juvenile rightness system that is theoretically designed to recognize the special requisites and unseasoned status of young people and emphasize rehabilitation over punishment (Steinberg). While juveniles should be responsible for their actions, and should be held accountable for the crime, then the juvenile andice system is design to determine the consequences. Youths are still minors and are less mature. They often face a lot of negative peer pressure. on that pointfore, juveniles should not be tried in courts as adults.Even though the justice system knows perfectly well that most juveniles offenders are too young to rattling understand the consequences of their actions, many juveniles are still transferred to adult courts for case hearing. A juvenile offender is someone who is too young to be tried as an adult. For instance, if a eighteen year old boy is charged as an adult with a killing of another boy, then he will be condemn to serve his directence in an adult jail. This boy could keep the mind of a younger person nevertheless he still will be beamd with the adults because by law he is an adult. Just because someone is eighteen years old that does not make them an adult.An adult is considered to be someone who has reached eighteen years old by law, but some pe ople do not stand the quality that makes an adult. Adults know how to accept responsibility, have plans for the approaching and is financially independent. Adults generally know right from wrong just like how children do, but they know what can cause them to go to jail and what cannot. Jewish young are declared adults in the eyes of their religion when they daily round thirteen (New York multiplication Upfront). The age that someone is considered an adult can vary from city and establish on their religion. Being considered an adult can be pretty harsh.When juvenile is sent to adult jails where he/she has an adult cell mate, then they could be naughtily influence. Juveniles and adults being cellmates can cause the juvenile to masturbate into more trouble. Adults will teach advantage of them and put the youth up to do things they are not suppose to do. Juveniles will not be able to mature properly because the cell mate is not on his/her age group. Rather than the juveniles being sent to a rehabilitation center where he/she would have had the companion of other children who care in similar position, and could thus be educated in interest. The habit juveniles should go to the juvenile court because it is a treatment and guidance earlier than punishment (Cliff Notes).By placing juveniles offenders in a place that was made for adults can take a toile on them. Although juveniles whitethorn know right from wrong, immaturity should be a reason for them not to be tried as adults. With that being said juveniles being charged with minor crimes should not have to go to a rehabilitation center nor jail. Criminal crime by juveniles should still be interpreted to juvenile justice system because they young children may be going through the stage of immaturity or negative peer pressure. Despite the inclemency of the crime juveniles are still children and are not developed with maturity quit yet. Holding teenagers responsible for themselves is not unique to our justice system (New York Times Upfront). Also, a rehabilitation institution has an advantage to adults prison in terms of their effect on the juvenile.When a juvenile is sent to juvenile court the of import focus is what they may be able to do to rehabilitate the teen. Being that it is a teen committing a crime they called it a delinquent act rather than a criminal offense. A criminal offense can make things worse than compared to delinquent act. Although most juveniles go to rehabilitation centers they do have juvenile prisons in many states and other places they can be sent sooner of a rehabilitation center.It has been found that changing the social environment in which juveniles receive is a more effective way to reduce violence than punishing juvenile offenders in adult courts( CliffNotes). If the youth has been to the adult criminal court alternatively of the juvenile court, then they will not have the right to go to a rehabilitation institution. Juveniles who commit serious crimes are being punished for their actions, but the possible solution to juveniles crime would be rehabilitation. By them going to this institution it can divine service them become more of a positive person deep down and out. It is cleared that older adults and children are totally not similar, so they should be treated accordingly. If they are at a rehabilitated institution they are more made in willing to learn.As said in the article by Cliff Notes , While the denial of full constitution rights for juveniles is sometime a problem, the juvenile courts mission is benevolence- serve the best interest of children ( CliffNotes, ). So by the juveniles going to a rehabilitation institution it can be better for them. It can help better them in so many ways. Ways they can better themselves having the right of still being able to get an education, they could possibly have a job, they will not be influence by people if so then it would be peer pressure, be around people thats around their age group so they can better relate. Being that they are teenagers they are still getting used to the surrounding so they will make mistakes regardless. When they make mistakes and are sent to a rehabilitation institution they will not have to deal with a whole lot of bullying by peers.There is something that is called a waiver. A waiver is something for juveniles who have committed serious offenses and the court waived them from a juvenile court to an adult court (Aaron Larson). Sometimes juveniles have to get mandatory waivers where they will be tried as adults.Some people may say a certain juvenile victim may need to go to the adult jail because of the crime committed and the adults can tortured them, but not too harshly. They may say this because if the child is that negative off then they could bring a lot of negative behavior in the rehabilitation institution. It should not be that way because every teenager has their times of displaying execrable behavior. Although they may no t act accordingly at times they are still children. So therefore the rehabilitation will be the right place for them. The rehab is designed the help the juveniles become better positive young people. If they give the juvenile a chance then maybe it will work for them instead of just wanting to send them to the adult jail.Every household should have morals for their family. Just because a family has morals it does not mean that when teens get around their peers that they will not act a different way from home. Some families do not raise their children with morals. A lack of human morals cannot be treated or cured in rehabilitation centers. Some things have to start from home to help guide children the right way. If children do not have no guidance when they get around their peers it will be very easy to influence them, they will often find themselves following the crowd, and even doing bad things to get attention. If a teen does something and they have to go to court and end up at a rehabilitation center but does not display morals then it is a possible change that, that child will always be out of control.New York Times Upfront states trying juveniles as adults sends a clear message that crimes such as murder, rape, and assault will not be tolerated and that perpetrators must accept the consequences of their actions. Agreeing with this because if a juvenile commits one of these crimes and just have to attend a rehabilitation center for a couple of months or years, then if they are more of a rough neck juvenile with no morals they can come home and continue to do the same things. So that then makes courts systems wonder if it is a good idea to have juveniles go to a rehabilitation center with crimes like these.Some teens have the maturity and judgment to make reasoned decisions. All juvenile are not mature and can make wise decisions just as well make bad ones. Many young people get drivers licenses before they turn eighteen (New York Times). The way youths use their thinking skills to drive a vehicle they could do the same before getting involved in criminal behavior.When juveniles commit crimes it does not guarantee when they become an adult their records will be sealed. These just vary from state to state. It can also be based upon the crime committed. If a juvenile has a sex offender charger then they would have to register as a sex offender, no matter what age they are for the rest of their life. Stated by Aaron Larson In some states which automatically seal a juveniles record once he/ she passes a certain age, that record may remain unsealed if the defendant is convicted of an adult offenses before he reaches that age.

What Is Green Infrastructure Environmental Sciences Essay

What Is Green Infrastructure Environmental Sciences EssayOver the orgasm century, climate change scenarios in urban regions will be managing extremes of precipitation and temperature, increased storm frequency and intensity, and sea-level rise. The problems with which urban beas are already be indicating that climate change impacts lease begun to occur and are likely to worsen in the future. Often honey oil approaches are combined with modifications to other(a) traditional knotty al-Qaidas much(prenominal) as expanding storm-sewers and streets or building storm- water supply storage tunnels. In recent thinking, portfolios of squirt al-Qaida and technologies have been identified as best practices at the topical anaesthetic level when combined with traditional grey infrastructure to achieve greater urban sustainability and resilience. In addition, verdure infrastructure is now being recognized for its lever as a means for adapting to the emerging and irreversible impacts o f climate change.What is Green Infrastructure?The DefinitionAccording to Neil (2006), Green Infrastructure includes the network of green spaces and other native elements such as river sand lakes that are interspersed between and connect villages, towns and cities. Individually these elements are green infrastructure assets and the roles that these assets play are green infrastructure functions. When appropriately planned, casted and managed, these assets and functions have the potential to deliver a wide range of social, environsal and economic benefits. Green infrastructure approaches help to achieve sustainability and resilience goals over a range of outcomes in addition to climate adaptation. The climate adaptation benefits of green infrastructure are generally related to their ability to concur the impacts of extreme precipitation or temperature.The History of Green Infrastructures.According to Karen Firehock (2010). Green infrastructure planning is not an entirely new(a) concept and the principles that form the derriere for the concept have arisen from multiple disciplines. The term itself was first coined in Florida in 1994 in a report to the governor on land conservation strategies and was think to reflect the notion that natural systems are equally, if not more grievous, components of our infrastructure. Since it is generally accepted that we have to plan for grey infrastructure, the idea of also planning to uphold or restore our natural resources, or green infrastructure, helped people to recognize its importance to community planning.As defined by Benedict and McMahon (2006). Green infrastructure is a strategically planned and managed network of wilderness, position, greenways, conservation easements, and working lands with conservation value that supports native species, maintains natural ecological processes, sustains air and water resources, and add ups to the health and persona of life for Americas communities and peopleThe types of green infrastructuresAccording to Neil (2006), Green infrastructure approaches to land-use planning promote the widest range of functions which can be performed by the same asset, unlocking the greatest compute of benefits. Such an approach enables us to demand more from the land in a sustainable way by helping to identify when it can turn in multiple benefits and to manage the m each, often conflicting, pressures for housing, industry, transport, energy, agriculture, nature conservation, recreation and aesthetics. It also highlights where it is important to retain single or limited land use functions. There are has many types of green infrastructure including in local scales, cities scale and regional scale.The types of green infrastructure in local, neighborhood, village such as TreesStreetHedges goop parksprivate gardenspond and streamscemeteries and burial groundsgreen roofs and walls,swalesinstitutional open spacessmall wood lands and etcetera.In town, city and district scal e such as business settingscity parksforest parkslakescountry parksrivers and flood plainsrecreational spacesagricultural landlandfillbrownfield areas and many more.In city-region, regional and national scale the types of green infrastructures is regional parksshorelineforestreservoirsroads and railway networksnational parksThe Benefits of Green Infrastructure.According to Neil (2006) The benefits of incorporating green infrastructure into the planning, vigilance and design.The multifunctional nature of green infrastructure assets, underpinned by ecosystem services, means that they can deliver a diverse range of benefits which are mutually reinforcing and can be deepen by the connectivity of these assets. It is important to fully appreciate the many benefits that GI can generate, including2.4.1 Climate change adaptationEven modest increases in tree canopy cover can significantly reduce the urban heat island effect via evapotranspiration and shading, as well as improving air qualit y, which often suffers because of higher temperatures. Connectivity of GI via wildlife corridors is critical in ensuring that biodiversity is safeguarded in the face of a changing climate and green space can ameliorate surface water run-off to reduce the attempt of flooding.2.4.2 Water managementGreen infrastructure is a good approach for managingflood risk. This can involve placing sustainable drainage systems (SUDs) in developments to attenuate surface water runoff and enhance biodiversity and recreation. Agricultural land and wetlands can be used to store flood water in areas where there is no risk to homes and technical buildings. Green infrastructure can be used to manage coastal retreat as well as to restore wetlands, enhancing carbon sequestration whilst providing important wildlife habitat. At Ingrebourne Hill, water management has been controlled through drainage schemes and the on-site lake, designed to alleviate flooding of neighboring properties and roads.2.4.3 Economi c valuesQuality green space can have a major positive impact on land and property markets, creating settings for investment and acting as a catalyst for wider regeneration. lofty quality, connected environments attract skilled and mobile workers which in turn encourage business investment, as is demonstrated at Crewe Business Park.2.4.4 Biodiversity enhancement, corridors and linkagesThe role of GI in providing wildlife habitat in both urban and rural areas is well established, but taking a grace-scale approach to the planning, design and management of connected GI assets provides the framework within which species migration can more readily occur in response to environmental pressures such as climate change.The Landscape Architecture professionAs retrieved from http//www.prospects.ac.uk/landscape_architect_job_description.htm (2010) Landscape architects create the landscape around us. They plan, design and manage open spaces including both natural and built environments. They wo rk to provide innovative and aesthetically satisfy environments for people to enjoy, whilst ensuring that changes to the natural environment are appropriate, sensitive and sustainable.The definition of Landscape Architect.According to Arno Sighart Schmid (2000) Landscape Architects conduct research and advice on planning, design and stewardship of the outdoorenvironment and spaces, both within and beyond the built environment, and its conservation and sustainability of development. For the profession of landscape architect, a degree in landscape architecture is required.Today, on the threshold of a new Millennium, humankind stands at a decisive point on its way into the future, with grave challenges and risks relating to our natural environment and its carrying capacity. Our profession of landscape architecture is called upon to contribute towards safeguarding the viability of the natural environment and towards developing and maintaining a humane built environment in cities, towns and villages.The role of landscape architectAs defined by American Society of Landscape Architects Declaration on Environment and Development (1993). Landscape architecture is the profession which applies artistic and scientific principles to the research, planning, design and management of both natural and built environments. Practitioners of this profession apply creative and technical skills and scientific, cultural and political knowledge in the planned arrangement of natural and constructed elements on the land with a concern for the stewardship and conservation of natural, constructed and human resources. The resulting environments shall serve useful, aesthetic, safe and enjoyable purposes.The roles of landscape architect is developing new or improved theories, policy and methods for landscape planning, design andmanagement at local, regional, national and multinational levelsdeveloping policy, plans, and implementing and monitoring proposals as well as developing new orimpro ved theories and methods for national parks and other conservation and recreation areasdeveloping new or improved theories and methods to promote environmental awareness, and undertaking planning, design, restoration, management and maintenance of cultural and/or historic landscapes, parks, sites and gardensplanning, design, management, maintenance and monitoring functional and aesthetic layouts of builtenvironment in urban, suburban, and rural areas including private and public open spaces, parks,gardens, streetscapes, plazas, housing developments, burial grounds, memorials tourist, commercial,industrial and educational complexes sports grounds, zoos, botanic gardens, recreation areas and farmscontributing to the planning, aesthetic and functional design, location, management and maintenance of infrastructure such as roads, dams, energy and major development projectsundertaking landscape assessments including environmental and visual impact assessments with view to developing polic y or undertaking projectsidentifying and developing appropriate solutions regarding the quality and use of the built environment in urban, suburban and rural areas and making designs, plans and working drawings, specifications of work, cost estimates and time schedulesconducting research, preparing scientific papers and technical reports, developing policy, teaching, and advising on aspects regarding landscape architecture such as the application of geographicThe role landscape architect in green infrastructures.According to Neil (2006), Landscape practitioners are engaged in every stage of the green infrastructure approach and are leading a revolution in the way in which green infrastructure is developed. This includes the planning of environmental resources, the design of new public realm, implementation of strategy and the management of delivered projects. Landscape practitioners have a pivotal role to play with other professionals in all stages of a green infrastructure process, which operates at all spatial scales. Landscape practitioners are trained in a broad range of disciplines with an ability to think holistically and see the larger picture. This means that the profession understands the many processes at work which shape the land and appreciates the need to consider potential changes to which a particular location could be subjected over time. The result is a profession which is ideally placed to provide the vision and tenacity needed for the sustainable development of our green infrastructure assets.ConclusionThe green infrastructure is crucial part of urban fabric that is highly perceived by residents contributing to their physical, cognitive and social well-being. Green infrastructure as spaces where they have contact with nature that fulfill nature needs and residents interaction needs. Diversity afforded the residents experiential contacts with the green infrastructure that offered stimulations with the outdoor environments to the residents. I t allowed them frequent engagements in various activities, dedicate them familiar and felt connected with the green infrastructure. Landscape architect take a main role to develop green infrastructure in any part of urban or sub-urban area. It is importance for physical, social interactions and effects of residents engaging with greens and open spaces. Cognitive experience of green infrastructure also evokes a sense of attachment to green spaces and towards a community as a whole. This is because parks and urban green spaces offer people positive emotional states and make available favorite places that are serene, peaceful and restful.

Theories on Learning and Multimedia

Theories on Learning and multimediaLiterature ReviewIntroductionComputer-based instruction was used by the military to stimulate standardize training and be more cost- yieldive (Shlechter, 1991). Computer-based instruction al starting times indivi duple assimilators to pace the lesson sate to meet his or her bespeaks and provides the surround for self-directed instruction (Lowe, 2002). Computer-based instruction cannister be defined as utilize reck wholenessrs to deliver, track, and/or manage instruction and when computers argon the briny temper of inwardness delivery. The instruction can include school schoolbookual matterbook, images, and feedback. Software advances al deplorable developers to integrate strait narrations, sound clips, graphics, videos, and animation into a undivided exhibit and played on a computer (Koroghlanian Klein, 2000 Moreno Mayer, 1999). command is classified as multimedia when sound, video, and images are include.Multimedia incorporates audio and optical break downicles with the instruction (Craig Gholson, Driscoll, 2002 Mayer Moreno, 2003 Mayer and Sims, 1994 Mayer Johnson, 2008). Audio components include narrations, which uses the students verbal stemmaise of his or her workss reposition. opthalmic components include static images, animations using multiple still images, a video, and/or on screen schoolbookual matterbookbook edition, which uses the students visual channel of his or her on the job(p) retentivity. When the student receives the teaching from the verbal and visual channel of his or her on the job(p)s computer storage and relates the culture from the devil channels, so meaningful discipline has diered (Tempelman-Kluit, 2006). Meaningful acquisition is developing a understanding of the material, which includes attending to meaning(a) aspects of the presented material, intellectually organizing it into a coherent cognitive structure, and integrating it with relevant exi sting companionship, (Mayer Moreno, 2003). Meaningful learning or understanding occurs when students are able to keep back the glut they learned and are able to sell the learning to new situations or creating solutions to problems rooted in the core presented (Jamet Le Bohec, 2007 Mayer and Sims, 1994). all toldowing students to emergence and commit the tuition is essential for noesis retention and meaningful learning.In multimedia learning, active process requires five cognitive processes selecting words, selecting images, organizing words, organizing images, and integrating. Mayer Moreno 2003Multimedia instruction non solely incorporates audio and visual elements it in each case has the capability of creating nonli dear content. Creating a nonlinear lesson al economic crisiss the learner to put on an active role in his or her learning and bypass voices they have already learned as well as go back and review sections if they need reinforcement. It is like displa ce the student in the drivers seat and enabling them to reach the destination through a variety of paths versus sitting on a bus and find tabuping at each stop and waiting until they reach the destination.Cognitive Learning Theories in MultimediaMultiple multimedia learning theories and principles guide the creation process for multimedia launchings and facilitates student learning. exploitation the theories and principles guides the innovation creation process and facilitates students learning. The dickens overarching theories are cognitive institutionalise and dual coding. Several loads and __ related to the dickens main theories are split-attention, redundance, modal value, spacial contiguity principle, temporal congruity principle and coherence principle. The tetrad theories that are directly relevant to this study are ___ ___ ___ and ___.Add anatomy of org chart of principles theories. Paivo, Sweller Mayer. Mayers scheme of multimedia learningCognitive fill upT he working(a) computer storage has a finite capacity for processing incoming information for any one channel, visual or audio. The combined processing, at any particular time, creates the working retentivity boards cognitive despatch ability (Baddeley, 1992 Mayer Moreno, 2003 Chandler Sweller, 1991). To take advantage of the memorys capability it is important to scale d consume trim and irrelevant information, thus reducing the cognitive demoralise (Sweller, 1994 Arda and Unal 2008 Mayer Moreno, 2003 Tempelman-Kluit, 2006). To keep the information efficient the multimedia should eliminate information that does non apply to a lesson or assignment. Content that is nonessential for transfer or retention should similarly be eliminated. Information needs to be pithy by cautiously selecting the text edition and images for the content and present the information succinct and organized in a logical pattern (Mayer Moreno, 2003). Careful selection of text and images should be concise so content can be presented in a succinct and organized, logical pattern.Grouping the information into smaller portions of information reduces the cognitive load. By accumulate the information, the working memory has the opportunity process the content and makes connections with foregoing learning and knowledge. The information is then stored in long-term memory (Mayer Moreno, 2003). After presenting a portion of the information, the multimedia presentation should include a brief activity to engage the student in processing and storing the information. Utilizing both the auditory and the visual channel of the working memory also helps with the cognitive load and content retention (Tempelman-Kluit, 2006).Based on the information above about memory and processing the Cognitive Load Theory (CLT) was developed by Sweller (1993, 1994, 1998). The supposition assumes that people possess a limited working memory (Miller, 1956) and an immense long-term memory (Chase Simon, 197 3), with learning mechanisms of precis acquisition (Chi et al., 1982 Larkin et al., 1980) and automatic processing (Kotovsky et al., 1985), (Jueng, Chandler Sweller, 1997). Cognitive load possibleness provides a single framework for instructional role based on recite cognitive processing capabilities for visual and auditory information (Jamet Le Bohec, 2007). Creating a multimedia presentation that conforms to CLT would integrate the auditory and visual information on the screen. The CLT presentation design limits the load on any one channel to prevent cognitive overload and increase learning (Kalyuga, Chandler, Sweller, 1998 Mayer and Moreno 2002 Tindall-Ford, Chandler, Sweller, 1997). Further re assay conducted by ____ ______ _____ indentified terzetto separate types of cognitive load, inseparable, extraneous, and germane. indispensable cognitive loadThe prototypic type of cognitive load is intrinsic and is shaped by the learning task and the learning victorious place (Van Merrinboer and Sweller, 2005). inseparable cognitive load occurs betwixt the learner and the content, with the learners aim of knowledge in the content area playing a factor. The other factors are the elements the working memory is processing at one time and element interactivity (van Merrinboer and Sweller, 2005). Element interactivity level depends on the degree to which the learner can understand the element information individually (Pass, Renkl, Sweller, 2003). If you need to reduce essential cog load (intri + extr + gemain) you need you need to know the elements and how to reduce loads. If the learner needs to understand some(prenominal)(prenominal) elements at once, and how they interact with each other, then the element interactivity is risque. so far, if the learner can understand each element independently then the element interactivity is low (Pass, Renkl, Sweller, 2003). The intrinsic level occurs with the learner and their working memory and constructing m eaning from the elements presented. duration intrinsic load cannot be adjusted, the extraneous load can be modified.Give own example of gamey and low element interactivity.(van Merrinboer and Sweller, 2005) intrinsic learning schema construction and automation.Content element interactivity directly correlated to intrinsic cognitive load ? (Pass, Renkl, Sweller, 2003). Page 1 of articleExtraneous cognitive loadThe mho type of cognitive load is extraneous or unable and is affected by the format of the information presented and what is required of the learner. Extraneous cognitive load occurs when information or learning tasks have high levels of cognitive processing and impedes with knowledge development (Pass, Renkl, Sweller, 2003). Extraneous cognitive load is also referred to as ineffective cognitive load since the cognitive processing is not contri scarcelying to the learning process. The working memory has independent two channels for processing audio and visual. If th e instruction occurs sole(prenominal) using one channel instead of utilizing both channels the learner go out experience a higher level of extraneous cognitive load (van Merrinboer and Sweller, 2005). Extraneous cognitive load can be reduced by several effects analyse as part of instructional design and cognitive load report as by Sweller et al., 1998 such as split attention, modality, and diffuseness (van Merrinboer and Sweller, 2005).Germane cognitive loadThe third type of cognitive load is germane and is also affected by design of the instruction being presented. While extraneous cognitive load accounts for information impeding learning germane cognitive load focuses on freeing cognitive resources to increase learning. Germane is also referred to as ineffective cognitive load. Germane and extraneous work together disproportionately. Designing instruction that lessens the extraneous cognitive load allows entreeal cognitive processing for germane load and increase students abi lity to assimilate information being presented (Pass, Renkl, Sweller, 2003). Intrinsic, extraneous, and germane cognitive loads work together for a combined total cognitive load this combined load cannot be greater than the available memory resources for a learner.An try conducted by Tindall-Ford, Chandler and Sweller, 1997 had a purpose of measuring cognitive load. The participants were twenty two initiatory course of study apprentices and had pure(a)d grade ten of high school. The participants were assigned to one of two treatments, visual-only instructions and audio-visual instructions. The essay started with an instructional phase, which has two parts and was c seconds in length. Part one of the instruction phase had an explanation of how to read an galvanic table and was either all visual, or was visual and audio with a cassette player. After the instructional phase part one, the participant rated the mental swither (load) based on a seven depict scale. and so the ap prentices took part in a tryout phase which include triple sections. The first section was a written scrutiny where participants filled in the clear headings in an electrical table. The second section contained questions about the format of the table. After the first part of instruction and two parts of adjudicateing, participants were given the same electrical table and participants had to apply information contained in the table to examples given. Participants had 170 seconds to study the information, then unadulteratedd another subjective mental effort (load) survey. thence the participants complete the final section of the screen phase. The apprentices had to apply the information and select the appropriate cable for an installation job with the given parameters. Apprentices had a two week kick the bucket where they continued with their modal(prenominal) training. and so both the two part instruction phase and the triplet part foot race phase were repeated.A 2 ( them e) X 2 (phase) analysis of variance was run for the first instruction section and the first two sections of the written test in the test phase and evidential discrimination was found with the audio-visual conclave execute violate than the visual-only company. When the ANOVA was run for the mental load for the two phases significance was found again, with the audio-visual assembly rating the mental effort lower than the visual-only group. mistakable results were found when analyzing part two of instruction mental load and section three of the written test for both phases. All test results revealed the audio-visual group outperforming the visual-only group for all tests and a lower mental load rating. Therefore the participant performance can be linked back to the cognitive load.An audition was conducted by Ardac and Unal, 2008 finish later Based on the investigate above by Tindall-Ford, Chandler and Sweller, 1997, when selecting a format for a presentation audio-only is th e better selection. This is full-strength not only from a modality theory, it is also better from a cognitive load theory perspective, since visual-only formats cause a higher level of mental effort for participants. mutation sentence that link split-attention effect as a part of cognitive load theory.Split-Attention EffectWhen images or animations are involved with the tautological text then the visual channel has to pay attention to multiple visual elements and the attention is split between the many visual pieces, creating the split-attention effect. Having several visual components such as text and animations causes an increase in the cognitive load and learning is hampered (Ardac Unal, 2008). Split-attention occurs when instructional material contains multiple sources of information that are not explicable by themselves and need to be integrated either physically or mentally to be understandable (Jeung, Chandler Sweller, 1997 Kalyuga, Chandler, Sweller, 1998 Tindall-Ford, Chandler, Sweller, 1997). Split-attention effect can be minimized by placing related text close in proximity to the image in the presentation or using audio narration for an animation instead of on-screen text (Jamet Le Bohec, 2007). one(a) experiment conducted to test the split-attention theory was designed by Mayer, Heiser, and Lonn, 2001. In this experiment there were 78 participants selected from an university psychology subject pool. The experiment was a 2 x 2 design with summarized on-screen text as a factor and extraneous expand as a second factor. There were four groups no text/no seductive details group with 22 students, text/no seductive details group with 19 students, no text/seductive details group with 21 students, text/seductive details group with 16 students. The group had a median age of 18.4 and was 33% male. All participants a humble prior knowledge of meteorology with a score of seven or lower out of eleven questions.Participants viewed a computer-based multi media presentation. The mutations with text include a summary of the narration. The versions with seductive details include additional narrations with real world examples. The experiment started with participants completing a questionnaire to collect demographic and prior knowledge information. Then participants watched a presentation with one of the treatments at individual computers. At the completion of the video students completed a retention and transfer test.Students who authentic on-screen text scored importantly lower on both the transfer and retention test than student who did not have on-screen text. These results are self-consistent with the split-attention theory as it relates to cognitive theory of multimedia. Students who received seductive details also scored lower on both the transfer and retention test than student who did not have seductive details. These results call for that including seductive details to a presentation hampered student learning.Another exper iment conducted was by Tindall-Ford, Chandler, and Sweller, 1997. This experiment had thirty participants that were first year pot apprenticed from Sydney. The participants were at random assigned to one of three groups, each group had ten participants. The first group was the visual only group that consisted of draws and related textual statements. The second group integrated the presentation include the textual statements still the statements were physically integrated into the diagrams. The third group is the audio-visual group include the same diagrams and however the textual statements were presented as audio instead of text.The participants first read the instructional materials, the audio group listened to the information from an audio-cassette. Then participants completed a written test with three sections a labeling section, a multiple choice section, and a transfer section, and finally participants completed a practical test. While analysis of the multiple choice secti on revealed no significant difference, the data indicated the audio-visual group performing better than the visual group. The section three data, the transfer test, had significant with the audio-visual and the integrated group performing better than the visual only. The findings revealed that the audio-visual and the integrated formats performed better than the visual only group. The non-integrated text performed the poorest out of the three groups, which supports the split-attention effect.A set of two experiments were conducted by Mayer Moreno, 1998 to verify split-attention and dual processing. The first experiment had 78 college students from a university psychology pool with little prior knowledge about metrology. The participants were randomly assigned to one of two groups. The coincidental narrations group (AN) had 40 students and the concurrent on-screen text groups (AT) had 38 students. Participants were tested in groups of one to five and were seated at individual cubic les with computers.The participants first completed a questionnaire, which assessed the students prior knowledge and collected demographic information. Then the students watched the presentation about cheer formation the students in the AN groups had on headphones. The presentation was 140 seconds long and included animation of the lightening process. The AN version had narration and the AT version had text on-screen that was identical to the narration, and used the same timings as the narration version.After the presentation the participants had 6 transactions to complete the retention test, where participants had to explain the lightening process. Then they had 3 transactions to complete a transfer test, which consisted of four presently essay questions. in conclusion the participants had 3 transactions to complete a matching test, where the students had to label parts of an image, based on the lightening formation statements provided. A split-attention effect occurred for a ll three tests, retentions, matching, and the transfer test which the AN group scored higher on the matching test than the AT group. These results also align with dual-processing.The second experiment by Mayer and Moreno, 1998 the content was changed to how a cars braking system operates. The first experiment had 68 college students from a university psychology pool with little prior knowledge about car mechanics. The concurrent narrations group (AN) had 34 students and the concurrent on-screen text groups (AT) had 34 students. Participants were tested in groups of one to five and were seated at individual cubicles with computers. The participants first completed a questionnaire, which assessed the students prior knowledge and collected demographic information. Then the students watched the presentation about how a cars braking system operates the students in the AN groups had on headphones.The presentation was 45 seconds long and included animation of a cars braking process, and wa s broken into 10 segments. The AN version had narration and a brief pause between segments, and the AT version had text on-screen that was identical to the narration, and used the same timings as the narration version. The AT groups text appeared under the animation and stayed visible until the next segment started. Then participants were randomly assigned to one of two groups. After the presentation the participants had 5 minutes to complete the retention test, where participants had to explain the braking process. Then they had 2.5 minutes to complete a transfer test, which consisted of four short essay questions. Finally the participants had 2.5 minutes to complete a matching test, where the students were given parts of the braking system and they had to identify the parts in an image and label them.A split-attention effect occurred for all three tests, retentions, matching, and the transfer test which the AN group scored higher on the matching test than the AT group. These resul ts also align with dual-processing. CONCLUSION (318-319)The experiments indicate the adding text in addition to the narration pass on impede student learning. The second experiment clarifies the split-attention effect, which if text is included it needs to be placed near the relevant part of the diagram. If text is not near the images, increase in the cognitive load occurs by trying to combine the images and text. The last two experiment further clarify the split-attention effect with three measures in two different experiments. Therefore narration should be used to accompany animation and images instead of text.Modality EffectThe working memory of a human beings has two channels a visual channel that processes information such as text, images, and animation through the eyes and an auditory channel that processes sounds such as narration through the ears. According to the modality principle, when information is presented in multimedia explanations, it also should ideally be prese nted auditorily versus on screen text (Craig, Gholson, Discoll, 2002 Moreno Mayer, 1999 Mayer, 2001 Mayer Johnson, 2008 Mayer, Fennell, et al., 2004). When the information is presented auditorily, the working memory uses both channels, visual and auditory to process the information being heard and the information on the screen (Tabbers, Martens, van Merrinboer, 2004). By utilizing both working memory channels, the mind can al settle down additional cognitive resources and create relationships between the visual and verbal information (Moreno and Mayer, 1999). When learning occurs using both memory channels the memory does not become overloaded and the learning becomes embedded, this improves the learners understanding (Mayer Moreno, 2002).Several experiments have been conducted relating to modality theory. One experiment in a geometry lesson taught in a math class at the elementary school level centre on the conditions that modality effect would be occur. The rehunters, Jeung, Chandler, and Sweller, (1997) created a three-by-two experiment that included three presentation modes and two depend modes. The three presentation modes were visual-visual, audio-visual, and audio-visual-flashing. The visual-visual diagrams and livelihood information were presented visually as on screen text the audio-visual group diagrams and supporting information were presented visually. In the audio-visual-flashing group, the supporting information was presented auditorily and diagrams were presented visually. However parts of the diagram flashed when the corresponding audio occurred.The two search modes were high search mode and low search mode. The high search mode labeled each end of the line separately so a line was determine by the garner at each end such as AB. Whereas the low search mode labeled the entire line with a single letter, such as C and reducing the search needed to locate the information. The experiment content was geometry the study population was sixty students from year six in a primary winding school with no previous geometry experience, creating ten students per group.The students participated in the experiment individually during class time. Students were randomly assigned to one of six groups the information was presented to the students on the computer. The experiment had three phases an introduction phase where the problem was identified and was presented in one of the six modes as assigned to the student, an acquisition phase which included two worked out examples on the computer, after each example students were required to complete a similar problem with pencil and paper, and finally a test phase that included four problems for students to complete with pencil and paper. In the test phase they found a significant effect on presentation mode but not on the search complexity.They performed additional data analysis to discover the significance between the presentation modes occurred in the high search group, but not the lo w search group. Analysis of the presentation modes for the high search group revealed that the audio-visual-flashing group performed a higher level of performance than the visual-visual group. The experiment support the modality theory hypothesis that mixed mode presentation (audio-visual-flashing) would be more effective because the multiple modes increase the working memory capacity.However these results were only found with the high search group and not the low search group. The group conducted two additional experiments to focus on high search and low search separately. The second experiment focused on high search. For this experiment, the population included thirty students from a Sydney public primary school who were in year six and had not been taught parallel line in geometry. The purpose was the same as before however the geometry content was a complex diagram. The groups were visual-visual, audio-visual, and audio-visual-flashing, with ten students were in each group. Th e results were consistent with modality theory and students who were in the audio-visual-flashing group performed better then the visual-visual group, and no differences were found between visual-visual group and the audio-visual group. Therefore for high search materials, the dual presentation mode increased performance when a visual reference was provided.The third experiment focused on low search. In this experiment the population included thirty students from a Sydney public primary school who had not been taught parallel lines in geometry. The groups included visual-visual, audio-visual, and audio-visual-flashing, and ten students were in each group. The procedure was similar to the first experiment however the geometry content was a low search diagram and only contained two labels. The groups were visual-visual, audio-visual, and audio-visual-flashing, with ten students in each group. The results revealed that the modality effect did occur with the transfer problems and the vi sual-visual group took more time than the audio-visual and the audio-visual-flashing group. The difference was that with the low search content the audio-visual group performed better than the visual-visual group meaning, low search materials the flashing power is not as beneficial. The three experiments had demonstrated that using mixed modes of presentation increases the effectiveness of the working memory and capacity for learning. The results indicated that when content requires a high level of search, visual indexs need to be included to free up cognitive resources and increase memory capacity.Therefore, based on the work of Jeung, Chandler, and Sweller (1997) when the computer multimedia presentations were created with a visual cue of a yellow box with a red outline was used as a visual indicator to assist users to locate where the mouse is clicking so students are not scanning the entire video screen for the mouse. In addition to visual references one version of the video in cluded audio only and another version will contain text only to confirm the modality effect.Selecting the most appropriate part of the working memory to disseminate the information and using the auditory channel to process information via audio instead of visual text allows the visual channel to use the working memory to focus on the images and animations that coincide with the audio. It is similar to watching a intelligence service program on television, your ears are listening to the news anchor and the working memory is processing that information while your eyes are watching the corresponding footage and the brain it combining the two pieces of information together. However if put closed(a) captioning on you are reading the same information you are hearing which is redundant.Redundancy EffectRedundancy effect can be defined as information being presented appears as both an image and as on-screen text, and the visual channel is responsible for all information while the audio ch annel is not used (Mayer, 2001 Barron Calandra, 2003). The distinction between the split-attention and tediousness effects hinges on the distinction between sources of information that are intelligible in isolation and those that are not. If a diagram and the concepts of functions it represents are sufficiently self-contained and intelligibly in isolation, then any text explaining the diagram is redundant and should be omitted in order to reduce the cognitive load (Kalyuga, Chandler, Sweller, 1998). Redundancy can occur with full text and full audio, full text and partial audio or partial text and full audio (Barron Calandra, 2003). The redundant information may be duplicate text and narration, a text description and a diagram or on-screen text and audio narration. The duplicate information causes in increase in the learners working memory because the visual channel is processing the same information from multiple sources. (Kalyuga, Chandler, Sweller, 1998 Mayer, Heiser and Lo nn, 2001). The prolixity effect is evident when student performance is hindered when redundant information is present, and student performance increase when the redundant information is removed (Kalyuga et all, 1998 Mayer, Heiser and Lonn, 2001 Jamet Le Bohec, 2007). The redundancy effect can be eliminated by presenting on-screen text as narration or presenting information as a diagram instead of a lengthy text explanation, and delivering information in a single mode that works complimentary with the other content be delivered (Mayer, Heiser and Lonn, 2001).Several experiments have been conducted relating to redundancy theory. One experiment conducted by Jamet and Le Boec, 2007 was designed to test the hypothesis that redundancy effect would be observed with full text and narration, and presenting sequential text would reduce the redundancy effect. The experiment had 90 undergraduate students from a psychology pool in France, with a median age of 20. The participants were randomly assigned to one of three groups no text, full text with corresponding audio, and sequential text. The experiment started with a prior knowledge test with four general questions and two particular questions. Then the participants viewed three documents about memory functioning, the presentation lasted about 11 minutes. After the presentation the participants took a retention test twelve open-ended questions. Then they took a transfer test with twelve inferential open-ended questions. Finally, the participants had to complete a diagram by labeling components.Results revealed significance difference with the retention scores with the no-text group performing better than the full-text group and the sequential text group. Similar results were reported for the diagram completion portion of the experiment and the transfer task. There was no significant effect sizing to indicate that the redundancy effect would be reduced by presenting redundant text sequentially. There was a significant effect between the no-text and the other two groups for the transfer, retention, and the diagram test which validates the redundancy effect. Based on the findings from the experiment above, having on-screen text in addition to narration overloads the visual channel and decreases learning. The authors did point out that the participants had a difficult time understanding the documents presented and they could not control the presentation.Another set of experiments were conducted by Mayer and Johnson, 2008 to test the redundancy theory. The first experiment focused on short redundant text that was display on-screen.Theories on Learning and MultimediaTheories on Learning and MultimediaLiterature ReviewIntroductionComputer-based instruction was used by the military to create standardize training and be more cost-effective (Shlechter, 1991). Computer-based instruction allows individual learners to pace the lesson content to meet his or her needs and provides the environment for self-dire cted learning (Lowe, 2002). Computer-based instruction can be defined as using computers to deliver, track, and/or manage instruction and when computers are the main mode of content delivery. The instruction can include text, images, and feedback. Software advances allow developers to integrate audio narrations, sound clips, graphics, videos, and animation into a single presentation and played on a computer (Koroghlanian Klein, 2000 Moreno Mayer, 1999). Instruction is classified as multimedia when sound, video, and images are included.Multimedia incorporates audio and visual elements with the instruction (Craig Gholson, Driscoll, 2002 Mayer Moreno, 2003 Mayer and Sims, 1994 Mayer Johnson, 2008). Audio components include narrations, which uses the students verbal channel of his or her working memory. Visual components include static images, animations using multiple still images, a video, and/or on screen text, which uses the students visual channel of his or her working memory. When the student receives the information from the verbal and visual channel of his or her working memory and relates the information from the two channels, then meaningful learning has occurred (Tempelman-Kluit, 2006). Meaningful learning is developing a understanding of the material, which includes attending to important aspects of the presented material, mentally organizing it into a coherent cognitive structure, and integrating it with relevant existing knowledge, (Mayer Moreno, 2003). Meaningful learning or understanding occurs when students are able to apply the content they learned and are able to transfer the information to new situations or creating solutions to problems rooted in the content presented (Jamet Le Bohec, 2007 Mayer and Sims, 1994). Allowing students to process and apply the information is essential for knowledge retention and meaningful learning.In multimedia learning, active processing requires five cognitive processes selecting words, selecting images, o rganizing words, organizing images, and integrating. Mayer Moreno 2003Multimedia instruction not only incorporates audio and visual elements it also has the capability of creating nonlinear content. Creating a nonlinear lesson allows the learner to have an active role in his or her learning and bypass sections they have already learned as well as go back and review sections if they need reinforcement. It is like putting the student in the drivers seat and enabling them to reach the destination through a variety of paths versus sitting on a bus and stopping at each stop and waiting until they reach the destination.Cognitive Learning Theories in MultimediaMultiple multimedia learning theories and principles guide the creation process for multimedia presentations and facilitates student learning. Using the theories and principles guides the presentation creation process and facilitates students learning. The two overarching theories are cognitive load and dual coding. Several effects and __ related to the two main theories are split-attention, redundancy, modality, spatial contiguity principle, temporal congruity principle and coherence principle. The four theories that are directly relevant to this study are ___ ___ ___ and ___.Add figure of org chart of principles theories. Paivo, Sweller Mayer. Mayers theory of multimedia learningCognitive LoadThe working memory has a finite capacity for processing incoming information for any one channel, visual or audio. The combined processing, at any particular time, creates the working memorys cognitive load ability (Baddeley, 1992 Mayer Moreno, 2003 Chandler Sweller, 1991). To take advantage of the memorys capability it is important to reduce redundant and irrelevant information, thus reducing the cognitive load (Sweller, 1994 Arda and Unal 2008 Mayer Moreno, 2003 Tempelman-Kluit, 2006). To keep the information efficient the multimedia should eliminate information that does not apply to a lesson or assignment. Cont ent that is nonessential for transfer or retention should also be eliminated. Information needs to be concise by carefully selecting the text and images for the content and present the information succinct and organized in a logical pattern (Mayer Moreno, 2003). Careful selection of text and images should be concise so content can be presented in a succinct and organized, logical pattern.Grouping the information into smaller portions of information reduces the cognitive load. By chunking the information, the working memory has the opportunity process the content and makes connections with prior learning and knowledge. The information is then stored in long-term memory (Mayer Moreno, 2003). After presenting a portion of the information, the multimedia presentation should include a brief activity to engage the student in processing and storing the information. Utilizing both the auditory and the visual channel of the working memory also helps with the cognitive load and content rete ntion (Tempelman-Kluit, 2006).Based on the information above about memory and processing the Cognitive Load Theory (CLT) was developed by Sweller (1993, 1994, 1998). The theory assumes that people possess a limited working memory (Miller, 1956) and an immense long-term memory (Chase Simon, 1973), with learning mechanisms of schema acquisition (Chi et al., 1982 Larkin et al., 1980) and automatic processing (Kotovsky et al., 1985), (Jueng, Chandler Sweller, 1997). Cognitive load theory provides a single framework for instructional design based on separate cognitive processing capabilities for visual and auditory information (Jamet Le Bohec, 2007). Creating a multimedia presentation that conforms to CLT would integrate the auditory and visual information on the screen. The CLT presentation design limits the load on any one channel to prevent cognitive overload and increase learning (Kalyuga, Chandler, Sweller, 1998 Mayer and Moreno 2002 Tindall-Ford, Chandler, Sweller, 1997). Furt her research conducted by ____ ______ _____ indentified three separate types of cognitive load, intrinsic, extraneous, and germane.Intrinsic cognitive loadThe first type of cognitive load is intrinsic and is shaped by the learning task and the learning taking place (Van Merrinboer and Sweller, 2005). Intrinsic cognitive load occurs between the learner and the content, with the learners level of knowledge in the content area playing a factor. The other factors are the elements the working memory is processing at one time and element interactivity (van Merrinboer and Sweller, 2005). Element interactivity level depends on the degree to which the learner can understand the element information independently (Pass, Renkl, Sweller, 2003). If you need to reduce total cog load (intri + extr + gemain) you need you need to know the elements and how to reduce loads. If the learner needs to understand several elements at once, and how they interact with each other, then the element interactivit y is high. However, if the learner can understand each element independently then the element interactivity is low (Pass, Renkl, Sweller, 2003). The intrinsic level occurs with the learner and their working memory and constructing meaning from the elements presented. While intrinsic load cannot be adjusted, the extraneous load can be modified.Give own example of high and low element interactivity.(van Merrinboer and Sweller, 2005) intrinsic learning schema construction and automation.Content element interactivity directly correlated to intrinsic cognitive load ? (Pass, Renkl, Sweller, 2003). Page 1 of articleExtraneous cognitive loadThe second type of cognitive load is extraneous or ineffective and is affected by the format of the information presented and what is required of the learner. Extraneous cognitive load occurs when information or learning tasks have high levels of cognitive processing and impedes with knowledge attainment (Pass, Renkl, Sweller, 2003). Extraneous cog nitive load is also referred to as ineffective cognitive load since the cognitive processing is not contributing to the learning process. The working memory has independent two channels for processing audio and visual. If the instruction occurs only using one channel instead of utilizing both channels the learner will experience a higher level of extraneous cognitive load (van Merrinboer and Sweller, 2005). Extraneous cognitive load can be reduced by several effects studied as part of instructional design and cognitive load report as by Sweller et al., 1998 such as split attention, modality, and redundancy (van Merrinboer and Sweller, 2005).Germane cognitive loadThe third type of cognitive load is germane and is also affected by design of the instruction being presented. While extraneous cognitive load accounts for information impeding learning germane cognitive load focuses on freeing cognitive resources to increase learning. Germane is also referred to as ineffective cognitive loa d. Germane and extraneous work together disproportionately. Designing instruction that lessens the extraneous cognitive load allows additional cognitive processing for germane load and increase students ability to assimilate information being presented (Pass, Renkl, Sweller, 2003). Intrinsic, extraneous, and germane cognitive loads work together for a combined total cognitive load this combined load cannot be greater than the available memory resources for a learner.An experiment conducted by Tindall-Ford, Chandler and Sweller, 1997 had a purpose of measuring cognitive load. The participants were twenty two first year apprentices and had completed grade ten of high school. The participants were assigned to one of two treatments, visual-only instructions and audio-visual instructions. The experiment started with an instructional phase, which has two parts and was 100 seconds in length. Part one of the instruction phase had an explanation of how to read an electrical table and was ei ther all visual, or was visual and audio with a cassette player. After the instructional phase part one, the participant rated the mental effort (load) based on a seven point scale.Then the apprentices took part in a test phase which included three sections. The first section was a written test where participants filled in the blank headings in an electrical table. The second section contained questions about the format of the table. After the first part of instruction and two parts of testing, participants were given the same electrical table and participants had to apply information contained in the table to examples given. Participants had 170 seconds to study the information, then completed another subjective mental effort (load) survey. Then the participants complete the final section of the test phase. The apprentices had to apply the information and select the appropriate cable for an installation job with the given parameters. Apprentices had a two week break where they cont inued with their normal training. Then both the two part instruction phase and the three part test phase were repeated.A 2 (group) X 2 (phase) ANOVA was run for the first instruction section and the first two sections of the written test in the test phase and significant difference was found with the audio-visual group performing better than the visual-only group. When the ANOVA was run for the mental load for the two phases significance was found again, with the audio-visual group rating the mental effort lower than the visual-only group. Similar results were found when analyzing part two of instruction mental load and section three of the written test for both phases. All test results revealed the audio-visual group outperforming the visual-only group for all tests and a lower mental load rating. Therefore the participant performance can be linked back to the cognitive load.An experiment was conducted by Ardac and Unal, 2008 finish later Based on the experiment above by Tindall-F ord, Chandler and Sweller, 1997, when selecting a format for a presentation audio-only is the better choice. This is true not only from a modality theory, it is also better from a cognitive load theory perspective, since visual-only formats cause a higher level of mental effort for participants.Transition sentence that link split-attention effect as a part of cognitive load theory.Split-Attention EffectWhen images or animations are involved with the redundant text then the visual channel has to pay attention to multiple visual elements and the attention is split between the many visual pieces, creating the split-attention effect. Having several visual components such as text and animations causes an increase in the cognitive load and learning is hampered (Ardac Unal, 2008). Split-attention occurs when instructional material contains multiple sources of information that are not comprehendible by themselves and need to be integrated either physically or mentally to be understandable (Jeung, Chandler Sweller, 1997 Kalyuga, Chandler, Sweller, 1998 Tindall-Ford, Chandler, Sweller, 1997). Split-attention effect can be minimized by placing related text close in proximity to the image in the presentation or using audio narration for an animation instead of on-screen text (Jamet Le Bohec, 2007).One experiment conducted to test the split-attention theory was designed by Mayer, Heiser, and Lonn, 2001. In this experiment there were 78 participants selected from an university psychology subject pool. The experiment was a 2 x 2 design with summarized on-screen text as a factor and extraneous details as a second factor. There were four groups no text/no seductive details group with 22 students, text/no seductive details group with 19 students, no text/seductive details group with 21 students, text/seductive details group with 16 students. The group had a median age of 18.4 and was 33% male. All participants a little prior knowledge of meteorology with a score of seven o r lower out of eleven questions.Participants viewed a computer-based multimedia presentation. The versions with text included a summary of the narration. The versions with seductive details included additional narrations with real world examples. The experiment started with participants completing a questionnaire to collect demographic and prior knowledge information. Then participants watched a presentation with one of the treatments at individual computers. At the completion of the video students completed a retention and transfer test.Students who received on-screen text scored significantly lower on both the transfer and retention test than student who did not have on-screen text. These results are consistent with the split-attention theory as it relates to cognitive theory of multimedia. Students who received seductive details also scored lower on both the transfer and retention test than student who did not have seductive details. These results indicate that including seductiv e details to a presentation hampered student learning.Another experiment conducted was by Tindall-Ford, Chandler, and Sweller, 1997. This experiment had thirty participants that were first year trade apprenticed from Sydney. The participants were randomly assigned to one of three groups, each group had ten participants. The first group was the visual only group that consisted of diagrams and related textual statements. The second group integrated the presentation included the textual statements however the statements were physically integrated into the diagrams. The third group is the audio-visual group included the same diagrams and however the textual statements were presented as audio instead of text.The participants first read the instructional materials, the audio group listened to the information from an audio-cassette. Then participants completed a written test with three sections a labeling section, a multiple choice section, and a transfer section, and finally participants completed a practical test. While analysis of the multiple choice section revealed no significant difference, the data indicated the audio-visual group performing better than the visual group. The section three data, the transfer test, had significant with the audio-visual and the integrated group performing better than the visual only. The findings revealed that the audio-visual and the integrated formats performed better than the visual only group. The non-integrated text performed the poorest out of the three groups, which supports the split-attention effect.A set of two experiments were conducted by Mayer Moreno, 1998 to verify split-attention and dual processing. The first experiment had 78 college students from a university psychology pool with little prior knowledge about metrology. The participants were randomly assigned to one of two groups. The concurrent narrations group (AN) had 40 students and the concurrent on-screen text groups (AT) had 38 students. Participants were tested in groups of one to five and were seated at individual cubicles with computers.The participants first completed a questionnaire, which assessed the students prior knowledge and collected demographic information. Then the students watched the presentation about lightening formation the students in the AN groups had on headphones. The presentation was 140 seconds long and included animation of the lightening process. The AN version had narration and the AT version had text on-screen that was identical to the narration, and used the same timings as the narration version.After the presentation the participants had 6 minutes to complete the retention test, where participants had to explain the lightening process. Then they had 3 minutes to complete a transfer test, which consisted of four short essay questions. Finally the participants had 3 minutes to complete a matching test, where the students had to label parts of an image, based on the lightening formation statements provide d. A split-attention effect occurred for all three tests, retentions, matching, and the transfer test which the AN group scored higher on the matching test than the AT group. These results also align with dual-processing.The second experiment by Mayer and Moreno, 1998 the content was changed to how a cars braking system operates. The first experiment had 68 college students from a university psychology pool with little prior knowledge about car mechanics. The concurrent narrations group (AN) had 34 students and the concurrent on-screen text groups (AT) had 34 students. Participants were tested in groups of one to five and were seated at individual cubicles with computers. The participants first completed a questionnaire, which assessed the students prior knowledge and collected demographic information. Then the students watched the presentation about how a cars braking system operates the students in the AN groups had on headphones.The presentation was 45 seconds long and included a nimation of a cars braking process, and was broken into 10 segments. The AN version had narration and a brief pause between segments, and the AT version had text on-screen that was identical to the narration, and used the same timings as the narration version. The AT groups text appeared under the animation and stayed visible until the next segment started. Then participants were randomly assigned to one of two groups. After the presentation the participants had 5 minutes to complete the retention test, where participants had to explain the braking process. Then they had 2.5 minutes to complete a transfer test, which consisted of four short essay questions. Finally the participants had 2.5 minutes to complete a matching test, where the students were given parts of the braking system and they had to identify the parts in an image and label them.A split-attention effect occurred for all three tests, retentions, matching, and the transfer test which the AN group scored higher on the ma tching test than the AT group. These results also align with dual-processing. CONCLUSION (318-319)The experiments indicate the adding text in addition to the narration will impede student learning. The second experiment clarifies the split-attention effect, which if text is included it needs to be placed near the relevant part of the diagram. If text is not near the images, increase in the cognitive load occurs by trying to combine the images and text. The last two experiment further clarify the split-attention effect with three measures in two different experiments. Therefore narration should be used to accompany animation and images instead of text.Modality EffectThe working memory of a human has two channels a visual channel that processes information such as text, images, and animation through the eyes and an auditory channel that processes sounds such as narration through the ears. According to the modality principle, when information is presented in multimedia explanations, i t also should ideally be presented auditorily versus on screen text (Craig, Gholson, Discoll, 2002 Moreno Mayer, 1999 Mayer, 2001 Mayer Johnson, 2008 Mayer, Fennell, et al., 2004). When the information is presented auditorily, the working memory uses both channels, visual and auditory to process the information being heard and the information on the screen (Tabbers, Martens, van Merrinboer, 2004). By utilizing both working memory channels, the mind can allocate additional cognitive resources and create relationships between the visual and verbal information (Moreno and Mayer, 1999). When learning occurs using both memory channels the memory does not become overloaded and the learning becomes embedded, this improves the learners understanding (Mayer Moreno, 2002).Several experiments have been conducted relating to modality theory. One experiment in a geometry lesson taught in a math class at the elementary school level focused on the conditions that modality effect would be occu r. The researchers, Jeung, Chandler, and Sweller, (1997) created a three-by-two experiment that included three presentation modes and two search modes. The three presentation modes were visual-visual, audio-visual, and audio-visual-flashing. The visual-visual diagrams and supporting information were presented visually as on screen text the audio-visual group diagrams and supporting information were presented visually. In the audio-visual-flashing group, the supporting information was presented auditorily and diagrams were presented visually. However parts of the diagram flashed when the corresponding audio occurred.The two search modes were high search mode and low search mode. The high search mode labeled each end of the line separately so a line was identified by the letters at each end such as AB. Whereas the low search mode labeled the entire line with a single letter, such as C and reducing the search needed to locate the information. The experiment content was geometry the stu dy population was sixty students from year six in a primary school with no previous geometry experience, creating ten students per group.The students participated in the experiment individually during class time. Students were randomly assigned to one of six groups the information was presented to the students on the computer. The experiment had three phases an introduction phase where the problem was identified and was presented in one of the six modes as assigned to the student, an acquisition phase which included two worked out examples on the computer, after each example students were required to complete a similar problem with pencil and paper, and finally a test phase that included four problems for students to complete with pencil and paper. In the test phase they found a significant effect on presentation mode but not on the search complexity.They performed additional data analysis to discover the significance between the presentation modes occurred in the high search group, but not the low search group. Analysis of the presentation modes for the high search group revealed that the audio-visual-flashing group performed a higher level of performance than the visual-visual group. The experiment confirmed the modality theory hypothesis that mixed mode presentation (audio-visual-flashing) would be more effective because the multiple modes increase the working memory capacity.However these results were only found with the high search group and not the low search group. The group conducted two additional experiments to focus on high search and low search separately. The second experiment focused on high search. For this experiment, the population included thirty students from a Sydney public primary school who were in year six and had not been taught parallel line in geometry. The procedure was the same as before however the geometry content was a complex diagram. The groups were visual-visual, audio-visual, and audio-visual-flashing, with ten students were in each group. The results were consistent with modality theory and students who were in the audio-visual-flashing group performed better then the visual-visual group, and no differences were found between visual-visual group and the audio-visual group. Therefore for high search materials, the dual presentation mode increased performance when a visual reference was provided.The third experiment focused on low search. In this experiment the population included thirty students from a Sydney public primary school who had not been taught parallel lines in geometry. The groups included visual-visual, audio-visual, and audio-visual-flashing, and ten students were in each group. The procedure was similar to the first experiment however the geometry content was a low search diagram and only contained two labels. The groups were visual-visual, audio-visual, and audio-visual-flashing, with ten students in each group. The results revealed that the modality effect did occur with the transfer pr oblems and the visual-visual group took more time than the audio-visual and the audio-visual-flashing group. The difference was that with the low search content the audio-visual group performed better than the visual-visual group meaning, low search materials the flashing indicator is not as beneficial. The three experiments had demonstrated that using mixed modes of presentation increases the effectiveness of the working memory and capacity for learning. The results indicated that when content requires a high level of search, visual indicators need to be included to free up cognitive resources and increase memory capacity.Therefore, based on the work of Jeung, Chandler, and Sweller (1997) when the computer multimedia presentations were created with a visual cue of a yellow box with a red outline was used as a visual indicator to assist users to locate where the mouse is clicking so students are not scanning the entire video screen for the mouse. In addition to visual references one version of the video included audio only and another version will contain text only to confirm the modality effect.Selecting the most appropriate part of the working memory to disseminate the information and using the auditory channel to process information via audio instead of visual text allows the visual channel to use the working memory to focus on the images and animations that coincide with the audio. It is similar to watching a news program on television, your ears are listening to the news anchor and the working memory is processing that information while your eyes are watching the corresponding footage and the brain it combining the two pieces of information together. However if put closed captioning on you are reading the same information you are hearing which is redundant.Redundancy EffectRedundancy effect can be defined as information being presented appears as both an image and as on-screen text, and the visual channel is responsible for all information while the audio channel is not used (Mayer, 2001 Barron Calandra, 2003). The distinction between the split-attention and redundancy effects hinges on the distinction between sources of information that are intelligible in isolation and those that are not. If a diagram and the concepts of functions it represents are sufficiently self-contained and intelligibly in isolation, then any text explaining the diagram is redundant and should be omitted in order to reduce the cognitive load (Kalyuga, Chandler, Sweller, 1998). Redundancy can occur with full text and full audio, full text and partial audio or partial text and full audio (Barron Calandra, 2003). The redundant information may be duplicate text and narration, a text description and a diagram or on-screen text and audio narration. The duplicate information causes in increase in the learners working memory because the visual channel is processing the same information from multiple sources. (Kalyuga, Chandler, Sweller, 1998 Mayer, Heiser and Lo nn, 2001). The redundancy effect is evident when student performance is hindered when redundant information is present, and student performance increase when the redundant information is removed (Kalyuga et all, 1998 Mayer, Heiser and Lonn, 2001 Jamet Le Bohec, 2007). The redundancy effect can be eliminated by presenting on-screen text as narration or presenting information as a diagram instead of a lengthy text explanation, and delivering information in a single mode that works complimentary with the other content be delivered (Mayer, Heiser and Lonn, 2001).Several experiments have been conducted relating to redundancy theory. One experiment conducted by Jamet and Le Boec, 2007 was designed to test the hypothesis that redundancy effect would be observed with full text and narration, and presenting sequential text would reduce the redundancy effect. The experiment had 90 undergraduate students from a psychology pool in France, with a median age of 20. The participants were randomly assigned to one of three groups no text, full text with corresponding audio, and sequential text. The experiment started with a prior knowledge test with four general questions and two specific questions. Then the participants viewed three documents about memory functioning, the presentation lasted about 11 minutes. After the presentation the participants took a retention test twelve open-ended questions. Then they took a transfer test with twelve inferential open-ended questions. Finally, the participants had to complete a diagram by labeling components.Results revealed significance difference with the retention scores with the no-text group performing better than the full-text group and the sequential text group. Similar results were reported for the diagram completion portion of the experiment and the transfer task. There was no significant effect size to indicate that the redundancy effect would be reduced by presenting redundant text sequentially. There was a significant effec t between the no-text and the other two groups for the transfer, retention, and the diagram test which validates the redundancy effect. Based on the findings from the experiment above, having on-screen text in addition to narration overloads the visual channel and decreases learning. The authors did point out that the participants had a difficult time understanding the documents presented and they could not control the presentation.Another set of experiments were conducted by Mayer and Johnson, 2008 to test the redundancy theory. The first experiment focused on short redundant text that was display on-screen.

Analysis of the Black Codes 1865-66 Essay -- Slavery, Inexpensive Labo

The Black Codes were legal statutes and constitutional amendments enacted by the ex Confederate states following the Civil War that sought to restrict the liberties of newly on the loose(p) slaves, to ensure a supply of inexpensive agricultural labor, and maintain a white dominated hierachy. (paragraph 1) In southern states, prior to the Civil War they enacted break ones back Codes to regulate the institution of slavery. And northern non-slave holding states enacted laws to limit the black political power and social mobility. (paragraph 2) Black Codes were adopted after the Civil War and borrowed points from the nonmodern slave laws as well as laws in the northern states used to regulate free blacks. (paragraph 3) Eventually, the Black Codes were extinguished when Radical Republican Reconstruction efforts began in 1866-67 along with the passage of the Fourteenth Amendment and civil rights legislation. The lives of the Black Codes did not have longevity but were significant. (para graph 3)Although each ex-Confederate state enacted its own set of codes, all of them sherd certain features such as they ...

Food in Mary Rowlandsons The Sovereignty and Goodness of God Essay

Food in Mary Rowlandsons The sovereignty and Goodness of GodFood is a metier for life, a dynamic of life, and an expression of the whims, joys, terrors, and histories in life. Food, more than anything else, is life. - Anonymous Neither life nor culture can be sustained without food. On a very basic level, food is fundamentally essential for life, not simply to exist, but also to thrive. A means by which carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins, nutrients, and calories are introduced into the body, food is a tool of survival. However, on a more abstract level, food is also fundamentally essential for culture by establishing its perimeters and dimensions and in shaping its authenticity and character. Food becomes the carbohydrates and calories that check any culture. Food offers a dynamic cross-section of mans tendencies. Nourishment, a basic biological need, argues anthropologist Sidney Mintz, becomes something else because we humans transform it symbolically into a sys tem of meaning for practically more than itself (7). By examining food consumption and preparation, much is discoverd regarding the intricacies of culture. The preparation and consumption of food in Puritan society are reflected in Mary Rowlandsons The Sovereignty and Goodness of God. Rowlandsons view of food and admissions of hunger in the infancy of her captivity cast a revealing light upon the roots of her conceptions and ideas about food and, more generally, about her cultures conceptions and ideas about food. As the conflict between her soul and her stomach raged over food, Rowlandsons attitudes toward the Native Americans preparation and consumption of food reflect the socialization of the Puritans to reckon that every meal ... ... Mary Caroline. The Days of the Pilgrim Fathers. Detroit Singing Tree Press, 1970. secondary source Geree, John. The Character of an Old English Puritan, or Non-Conformist. 17th Century Primary Source Documents <http//www.orst.edu/dept/ bi ography/primary17.htm Accessed 21 May 2001. primary source Goodwin, Lorinda B. R. An Archeology of Manners The Polite World of the Merchant Elite of Colonial Massachusettes. capital of Massachusetts Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers, 1999. secondary source Mintz, Sidney W. Tasting Food, Tasting Freedom Excursions into Eating, Culture, and the Past. Boston Beacon Press, 1996. secondary source Mizruchi, Susan L. The Place of Ritual in Our Time. American Literary History 12, no. 3 (2000) 467-492. secondary source Rowlandson, Mary. The Sovereignty and Goodness of God. Boston Bedford Books, 1997.